Fiscal Policy
There are three economic policies that governments use to influence economic activity and to achieve their macroeconomic policy objective, and fiscal policy is one of the main policy.
Fiscal policy: the taxation and spending decision of a government, in order to influence Aggregate Demand (AD) and the level of economic activity.
AD is the total level of planned expenditure in an economy. AD=C+I+G+(X-M)
Government can raise AD by increasing its own spending and/or reducing taxation, eg increase government spending on transport, or at the areas of health or education, this will have multiplier effect, causing AD raising even further.
A cut in income tax will increase people’s disposable income, this will raise consumption. Lower corporation tax bring increase ability of firms to invest and in the result will be increase AD.
Expansionary FiscalPolicy:
Increase government spending and cut taxes. Lower taxes will increase consumers spending because they have more disposable income(C).This will worsen the governmentt budget deficit. they do it to increase AD and reduce unemployment. But it can lead to nflation and increase imports.
Contractionary fiscal policy:
Decreae government spending, increase tax-will reduce consumer spending,this will lead to an improvement in the government budget deficit.
But deflationary policy involves measure to reduce AD, it is cuts in government spending and/or rises in taxes.
Thursday, 19 March 2009
Thursday, 12 March 2009
Marxism
There are three main aim:
1 Education prepares children for the world for work by giving them skills and values they will need.
2 Education justifies inequality. Inequality is a structural in origin because it is fundamental to the economic system.
3 Education passes on rulling class ideolgy that supports capitalsm. A rulling class, if it is to continue in power, must ensure it reproducers itself over time. People have to be sociolised into acceprting the basic ideas of Capitalism. For the rulling class to maintain its economic domination, power and influence, it is vital that the education system reproduce:
a) the basic ideology of Capitalism
b) the economis domination of rulling class over time.
The educational process has appearance of fairness and merit, which means that success and failure can be rationalised as a failure of the individual rather than the system as a whole.
Althusser see education as a part of ideological stat apparatus. It is a tool of capitalism which as belief tha society is fair. And he thinks that education produces a doclie and obedient workforce.
Bowles and Gintis say that there is a close link between school and work, there is a correspondence between pupil experiences of school and adult work. Also pupils are taught to accept hierarchy at scholl, work also has a hierarchy. Pupils are motivated by grades to do boring work, workers are rewarded with pay to do boring work. The school day is broken into a small units , so is the work day. At school and work subservirence is rewarded.
They think that the hidden curriculam prepares people for work.
Willis says that education doesn't turn out an obedient workforce.
Bordieu use concept of culture capital ,to explain how the middle-class get into the top position.
There are three main aim:
1 Education prepares children for the world for work by giving them skills and values they will need.
2 Education justifies inequality. Inequality is a structural in origin because it is fundamental to the economic system.
3 Education passes on rulling class ideolgy that supports capitalsm. A rulling class, if it is to continue in power, must ensure it reproducers itself over time. People have to be sociolised into acceprting the basic ideas of Capitalism. For the rulling class to maintain its economic domination, power and influence, it is vital that the education system reproduce:
a) the basic ideology of Capitalism
b) the economis domination of rulling class over time.
The educational process has appearance of fairness and merit, which means that success and failure can be rationalised as a failure of the individual rather than the system as a whole.
Althusser see education as a part of ideological stat apparatus. It is a tool of capitalism which as belief tha society is fair. And he thinks that education produces a doclie and obedient workforce.
Bowles and Gintis say that there is a close link between school and work, there is a correspondence between pupil experiences of school and adult work. Also pupils are taught to accept hierarchy at scholl, work also has a hierarchy. Pupils are motivated by grades to do boring work, workers are rewarded with pay to do boring work. The school day is broken into a small units , so is the work day. At school and work subservirence is rewarded.
They think that the hidden curriculam prepares people for work.
Willis says that education doesn't turn out an obedient workforce.
Bordieu use concept of culture capital ,to explain how the middle-class get into the top position.
Youth unemployment was the result of school’s failure to teach appropriate work skills. And this skills was to blame for Britain’s economic decline, at the result was aim to reduce youth unemployment, to increase people’s skill levels and make more aware of the world of work, and appeared vocationalism.
Vocationalism is a series of measures in the 1980s that reemphasized the importance of work-related education .
Vocation education and training have had many critics, particularly from neo-Marxist writers. Finn(1987) argues that there is a hidden political agenda to vocational training.
It provides cheap labour for employers, keeps the pay rates of young workers low.
It reduces political embarrassing unemployment statistics.
It may also be intended to reduce crime by removing young people from the streets.
Philip Cohen (1984) argue that the real purpose of vocational training is to create good attitudes and also work discipline rather than actual job skills. It is help young people come to accept a likely future low-paid and unskilled work. Youth unemployment it is not mean that they haven’t experience from part-time jobs, it is mean that people need in the vocational courses, to improve their knowledge and skills.
There are two main aims of vocational education and training:
First, to provide the training for a high wage and high skill economy, so the UK can compete successfully market in the world.
Second, to reduce unemployment, particularly for young people.
Part of the reason to change was to raise the status of vocational qualifications to the level of academic qualifications The aim of NVQs is to raise skill level in a wide range of jobs. In 1990s, was fastest growing job in hospitals and nursing homes.
Tony Blair claimed that it helped to young people find jobs, and also it helped others move into higher education.
Correspondence theory , it is a close correspondence between the social relationship in the classroom and those in the workplace.
Schools, like the wider society are based on the hierarchies. Pupils have little control over their work and future result depend only from pupils. Schools reward punctuality, obedience, hard work. Pupils should be motivated by educational qualifications, how workers are motivated by paying. Gintis argue that this correspondence between schools and workplace effectively reproduce workers from one generation to the next.
Vocationalism is a series of measures in the 1980s that reemphasized the importance of work-related education .
Vocation education and training have had many critics, particularly from neo-Marxist writers. Finn(1987) argues that there is a hidden political agenda to vocational training.
It provides cheap labour for employers, keeps the pay rates of young workers low.
It reduces political embarrassing unemployment statistics.
It may also be intended to reduce crime by removing young people from the streets.
Philip Cohen (1984) argue that the real purpose of vocational training is to create good attitudes and also work discipline rather than actual job skills. It is help young people come to accept a likely future low-paid and unskilled work. Youth unemployment it is not mean that they haven’t experience from part-time jobs, it is mean that people need in the vocational courses, to improve their knowledge and skills.
There are two main aims of vocational education and training:
First, to provide the training for a high wage and high skill economy, so the UK can compete successfully market in the world.
Second, to reduce unemployment, particularly for young people.
Part of the reason to change was to raise the status of vocational qualifications to the level of academic qualifications The aim of NVQs is to raise skill level in a wide range of jobs. In 1990s, was fastest growing job in hospitals and nursing homes.
Tony Blair claimed that it helped to young people find jobs, and also it helped others move into higher education.
Correspondence theory , it is a close correspondence between the social relationship in the classroom and those in the workplace.
Schools, like the wider society are based on the hierarchies. Pupils have little control over their work and future result depend only from pupils. Schools reward punctuality, obedience, hard work. Pupils should be motivated by educational qualifications, how workers are motivated by paying. Gintis argue that this correspondence between schools and workplace effectively reproduce workers from one generation to the next.
Tuesday, 10 March 2009
Jan Flaherty holds on Economic and Social Research Council studentship and her research interests are poverty and discourse. She has worked as a research assistant for Professor Ruth Lister at Lough-borough University.
Educational disadvantages.
The links between poverty, social class and poor educational attainment are strong. They are evident before the primary school, increase throughout a child’s school career, reflected in different qualifications and rates of access to further education.
2002 59% of children receiving free school meals (FSM), 70% of those are not receiving free school meals (non-FSM)
Schools in the poorest areas have 10 to 25% of pupils achieving 5GSCE passes at grades A*-C ( because they are haven’t resources for this, some special guides, computers or private tutors)
Nearly 90% of ’failing schools’ are located in deprived areas.
A close link between truanting and child poverty. Money problems in the family were a significant factors in younger children’s non-attendance at school.
Children who grow up in poverty are more likely to leave school at age 16, factor is decrease the chance of receiving high-grades GSCEs
Lack of materials resources such as space to work, books, computers at home, money for equipment and trips were idmitified by professionals in education as key factors in children’s low performance.
Poverty can follow a child into adulthood, in habiting aspirations and leading to under-achievement and educational and employment disadvantage. As a result, plans to reduce child poverty need to tackle both the immediate and long-term effects of childhood deprivation.
Thursday, 26 February 2009
Secondary agents of socialization
The secondary agents of socialization and function to build on what has been learned during primary socialization in order to help the child to take their place in wider society.
Functionalists see education systems as essential in that they transmit shared cultural values, thus producing conformity and consensus.
Durkheim believed that some subjects such history, language and religious, education link the individual to society, past and present, by encouraging a sense of pride in the historical and religious achievements of their nation. This reinforces their sense of belonging of society.
Parsons argued that the main function of education was to act as a social bridge between the family unit and wider society. Education socializes children- achievement, competition and individualism, functionalists see the transmission of these values as essential in preparing young people for the world work.
Marxist- Althusser (1971), argue that education as an agency of socialization is dominated by a hidden curriculum- a ruling-class ideology that encourages conformity and an unquestioning acceptance of the organization of the capitalism. Working-class pupils are socialized to see their failure as their own fault and as deserved rather than being caused by capitalism’s need for a relatively uneducated manual labour force.
Many sociologist argue that mass media- newspapers, magazines, television, films, pop music, computer games, the internet- comprise the most significant socialization agency today. As far as influence over values and norms are concerned. Mass media offer a window onto the wider world and provide much of the important required to make sense of events that have bearing on our everyday lives. Also media may have the power to structure how and what we think.
New vocationalism
Until 1970s, vocational training- training for work was seen as the responsibility of employers. They teach new recruit’s the skills needed in the work place. Also in the schools for the young people who lacked the skills required by industry, and the line of argument led to the new vocationalism.
Aims of vocational education have focused on two main areas:
First, to provide the training needed for a high wage/high skill economy, so that the UK can compete successfully in world markets.
Second, to reduce unemployment, particularly for young people.
2 Compare the political views on the role of education
a) Liberals
b) Social Democrat
c) New Right
''Liberal Education is an approach to learning that empowers individuals and prepares them to deal with complexity, diversity, and change. It provides students with broad knowledge of the wider world (e.g. science, culture, and society) as well as in-depth study in a specific area of interest. A liberal education helps students develop a sense of social responsibility, as well as strong and transferable intellectual and practical skills such as communication, analytical and problem-solving skills, and a demonstrated ability to apply knowledge and skills in real-world settings. ''
Social Democratic have had an important influence on government educational policy. Social democratic theorists start the view that everybody should have an equal chance to succeed in the educational system, it also brings practical benefits. A well educated- workforce will lead to economic growth. In democracy everybody has a right to equal opportunity. If people have not opportunity to develop their aptitudes and abilities, then their contribution to society as a whole will be reduced.
New Right policies favour the use of market forces as a method of distributing resources. In a free market, consumers have choice and choose between a range of products. Producers compete to produce the best price. In this way, schools compete to attract pupils and educational standards to improve.
Their first actions, though, involved trying to tackle the growing problem of youth unemployment .
The secondary agents of socialization and function to build on what has been learned during primary socialization in order to help the child to take their place in wider society.
Functionalists see education systems as essential in that they transmit shared cultural values, thus producing conformity and consensus.
Durkheim believed that some subjects such history, language and religious, education link the individual to society, past and present, by encouraging a sense of pride in the historical and religious achievements of their nation. This reinforces their sense of belonging of society.
Parsons argued that the main function of education was to act as a social bridge between the family unit and wider society. Education socializes children- achievement, competition and individualism, functionalists see the transmission of these values as essential in preparing young people for the world work.
Marxist- Althusser (1971), argue that education as an agency of socialization is dominated by a hidden curriculum- a ruling-class ideology that encourages conformity and an unquestioning acceptance of the organization of the capitalism. Working-class pupils are socialized to see their failure as their own fault and as deserved rather than being caused by capitalism’s need for a relatively uneducated manual labour force.
Many sociologist argue that mass media- newspapers, magazines, television, films, pop music, computer games, the internet- comprise the most significant socialization agency today. As far as influence over values and norms are concerned. Mass media offer a window onto the wider world and provide much of the important required to make sense of events that have bearing on our everyday lives. Also media may have the power to structure how and what we think.
New vocationalism
Until 1970s, vocational training- training for work was seen as the responsibility of employers. They teach new recruit’s the skills needed in the work place. Also in the schools for the young people who lacked the skills required by industry, and the line of argument led to the new vocationalism.
Aims of vocational education have focused on two main areas:
First, to provide the training needed for a high wage/high skill economy, so that the UK can compete successfully in world markets.
Second, to reduce unemployment, particularly for young people.
2 Compare the political views on the role of education
a) Liberals
b) Social Democrat
c) New Right
''Liberal Education is an approach to learning that empowers individuals and prepares them to deal with complexity, diversity, and change. It provides students with broad knowledge of the wider world (e.g. science, culture, and society) as well as in-depth study in a specific area of interest. A liberal education helps students develop a sense of social responsibility, as well as strong and transferable intellectual and practical skills such as communication, analytical and problem-solving skills, and a demonstrated ability to apply knowledge and skills in real-world settings. ''
Social Democratic have had an important influence on government educational policy. Social democratic theorists start the view that everybody should have an equal chance to succeed in the educational system, it also brings practical benefits. A well educated- workforce will lead to economic growth. In democracy everybody has a right to equal opportunity. If people have not opportunity to develop their aptitudes and abilities, then their contribution to society as a whole will be reduced.
New Right policies favour the use of market forces as a method of distributing resources. In a free market, consumers have choice and choose between a range of products. Producers compete to produce the best price. In this way, schools compete to attract pupils and educational standards to improve.
Their first actions, though, involved trying to tackle the growing problem of youth unemployment .
Sunday, 15 February 2009
Why do some pupils achieve more than others?
The education system is one of the most influential institutions in society. Some pupils are better than others, it depends of social classes, culture capital, family income, amount of knowledge, attitudes and skills. There are differences in class of society, between working class and upper class, between boys and girls, between ethnic groups.
Social classes.
Pupils of upper class go to special schools , i.e. it can be private school where study only pupils, who's family income is higher than working class. Pupils have pocket money and they never think about work at the moment when they study. Also parents can hire a private tutor or buy different revision guide when their children have problems in education.
Schools for working-class are free, include uniforms, transport to and from school, classroom materials, school textbooks and other neccessary things for education. Working-class children more likely to have to work part time to support their studies. They do it to earn some money because their parents' income is small. Also parents can more easily afford to pay for childcare and it is give affect at the pupils' attendance and performance at school. Pupils are more likely to leave school at the age of 16 and less likely to go to University, because their parents can not pay for the higher education, also children are not interested in higher education because their basic one is poorer than others', and they think they can not have success in education, because parents and teachers do not believe in them.
Culture capital is valuable as material wealth- economical capital, forms of knowledge, values, ways of interacting and communication ideas. Working-class and ethnic minority children may lack this qualities and have not the same chances to succeed. Middle-class mothers had more educational qualifications and they used cultural capital to good effect to helping children with their homework and other school things. Mothers who have the main influence on their children's education and their effectiveness depends on the amount of cultural capital at their disposal, and this depends on their social class.
The education system is one of the most influential institutions in society. Some pupils are better than others, it depends of social classes, culture capital, family income, amount of knowledge, attitudes and skills. There are differences in class of society, between working class and upper class, between boys and girls, between ethnic groups.
Social classes.
Pupils of upper class go to special schools , i.e. it can be private school where study only pupils, who's family income is higher than working class. Pupils have pocket money and they never think about work at the moment when they study. Also parents can hire a private tutor or buy different revision guide when their children have problems in education.
Schools for working-class are free, include uniforms, transport to and from school, classroom materials, school textbooks and other neccessary things for education. Working-class children more likely to have to work part time to support their studies. They do it to earn some money because their parents' income is small. Also parents can more easily afford to pay for childcare and it is give affect at the pupils' attendance and performance at school. Pupils are more likely to leave school at the age of 16 and less likely to go to University, because their parents can not pay for the higher education, also children are not interested in higher education because their basic one is poorer than others', and they think they can not have success in education, because parents and teachers do not believe in them.
Culture capital is valuable as material wealth- economical capital, forms of knowledge, values, ways of interacting and communication ideas. Working-class and ethnic minority children may lack this qualities and have not the same chances to succeed. Middle-class mothers had more educational qualifications and they used cultural capital to good effect to helping children with their homework and other school things. Mothers who have the main influence on their children's education and their effectiveness depends on the amount of cultural capital at their disposal, and this depends on their social class.
Tuesday, 3 February 2009
Feral Youths
Nowadays children are beginning to behave like animals. Their behaviour is agressive and lutish. Teenagers are the biggest drinkers, the most sexually promiscuous, the worst educated, and more likely to commit violent crimes, make noises and disturb their neighbours.More than 60% of teenagers drink alcohol and then about 20% have agressive behaviour and after this they can not control your-self. They drink alcohol (wine or beer) because it is cheap way to have fun then to go to cinema or to football match because it is expensive than alcochol drinks.
There are more and more feral youths because their parents spend less time to their children, also children from poor family or lone parents family can have feral behaviour.
Nowadays children are beginning to behave like animals. Their behaviour is agressive and lutish. Teenagers are the biggest drinkers, the most sexually promiscuous, the worst educated, and more likely to commit violent crimes, make noises and disturb their neighbours.More than 60% of teenagers drink alcohol and then about 20% have agressive behaviour and after this they can not control your-self. They drink alcohol (wine or beer) because it is cheap way to have fun then to go to cinema or to football match because it is expensive than alcochol drinks.
There are more and more feral youths because their parents spend less time to their children, also children from poor family or lone parents family can have feral behaviour.
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